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## Object Interface

Python is dynamically typed, unlike C++ which is statically typed. Python variables may hold an integer, a float, list, dict, tuple, str, long etc., among other things. In the viewpoint of Boost.Python and C++, these Pythonic variables are just instances of class `object`. We will see in this chapter how to deal with Python objects.

As mentioned, one of the goals of Boost.Python is to provide a bidirectional mapping between C++ and Python while maintaining the Python feel. Boost.Python C++ `object`s are as close as possible to Python. This should minimize the learning curve significantly.

### Basic Interface

Class `object` wraps `PyObject*`. All the intricacies of dealing with `PyObject`s such as managing reference counting are handled by the `object` class. C++ object interoperability is seamless. Boost.Python C++ `object`s can in fact be explicitly constructed from any C++ object.

To illustrate, this Python code snippet:

    def f(x, y):
         if (y == 'foo'):
             x[3:7] = 'bar'
         else:
             x.items += y(3, x)
         return x

    def getfunc():
       return f;

Can be rewritten in C++ using Boost.Python facilities this way:

    object f(object x, object y) {
         if (y == "foo")
             x.slice(3,7) = "bar";
         else
             x.attr("items") += y(3, x);
         return x;
    }
    object getfunc() {
        return object(f);
    }

Apart from cosmetic differences due to the fact that we are writing the code in C++, the look and feel should be immediately apparent to the Python coder.

### Derived Object types

Boost.Python comes with a set of derived `object` types corresponding to that of Python's:

- list
- dict
- tuple
- str
- long_
- enum

These derived `object` types act like real Python types. For instance:

    str(1) ==> "1"

Wherever appropriate, a particular derived `object` has corresponding Python type's methods. For instance, `dict` has a `keys()` method:

    d.keys()

`make_tuple` is provided for declaring tuple literals. Example:

    make_tuple(123, 'D', "Hello, World", 0.0);

In C++, when Boost.Python `object`s are used as arguments to functions, subtype matching is required. For example, when a function `f`, as declared below, is wrapped, it will only accept instances of Python's `str` type and subtypes.

    void f(str name)
    {
        object n2 = name.attr("upper")();   // NAME = name.upper()
        str NAME = name.upper();            // better
        object msg = "%s is bigger than %s" % make_tuple(NAME,name);
    }

In finer detail:

    str NAME = name.upper();

Illustrates that we provide versions of the str type's methods as C++ member functions.

    object msg = "%s is bigger than %s" % make_tuple(NAME,name);

Demonstrates that you can write the C++ equivalent of `"format" % x,y,z` in Python, which is useful since there's no easy way to do that in std C++.

Python:

    >>> d = dict(x.__dict__)     # copies x.__dict__
    >>> d['whatever'] = 3        # modifies the copy

C++:

    dict d(x.attr("__dict__"));  // copies x.__dict__
    d['whatever'] = 3;           // modifies the copy

## class_<T> as objects

Due to the dynamic nature of Boost.Python objects, any `class_<T>` may also be one of these types! The following code snippet wraps the class (type) object.

We can use this to create wrapped instances. Example:

    object vec345 = (
        class_<Vec2>("Vec2", init<double, double>())
            .def_readonly("length", &Point::length)
            .def_readonly("angle", &Point::angle)
        )(3.0, 4.0);

    assert(vec345.attr("length") == 5.0);

### Extracting C++ objects

At some point, we will need to get C++ values out of object instances. This can be achieved with the `extract<T>` function. Consider the following:

    double x = o.attr("length"); // compile error

In the code above, we got a compiler error because Boost.Python `object` can't be implicitly converted to `double`s. Instead, what we wanted to do above can be achieved by writing:

    double l = extract<double>(o.attr("length"));
    Vec2& v = extract<Vec2&>(o);
    assert(l == v.length());

The first line attempts to extract the "length" attribute of the Boost.Python `object`. The second line attempts to extract the `Vec2` object from held by the Boost.Python `object`.

Take note that we said "attempt to" above. What if the Boost.Python `object` does not really hold a `Vec2` type? This is certainly a possibility considering the dynamic nature of Python `object`s. To be on the safe side, if the C++ type can't be extracted, an appropriate exception is thrown. To avoid an exception, we need to test for extractibility:

    extract<Vec2&> x(o);
    if (x.check()) {
        Vec2& v = x(); ...

The astute reader might have noticed that the `extract<T>` facility in fact solves the mutable copying problem:

    dict d = extract<dict>(x.attr("__dict__"));
    d["whatever"] = 3;          // modifies x.__dict__ !

### Enums

Boost.Python has a nifty facility to capture and wrap C++ enums. While Python has no `enum` type, we'll often want to expose our C++ enums to Python as an `int`. Boost.Python's enum facility makes this easy while taking care of the proper conversions from Python's dynamic typing to C++'s strong static typing (in C++, ints cannot be implicitly converted to enums). To illustrate, given a C++ enum:

    enum choice { red, blue };

the construct:

    enum_<choice>("choice")
        .value("red", red)
        .value("blue", blue)
        ;

can be used to expose to Python. The new enum type is created in the current `scope()`, which is usually the current module. The snippet above creates a Python class derived from Python's `int` type which is associated with the C++ type passed as its first parameter.

| Note
what is a scope? The scope is a class that has an associated global Python object which controls the Python namespace in which new extension classes and wrapped functions will be defined as attributes. Details can be found here.

You can access those values in Python as

    >>> my_module.choice.red
    my_module.choice.red

where my_module is the module where the enum is declared. You can also create a new scope around a class:

    scope in_X = class_<X>("X")
                    .def( ... )
                    .def( ... )
                ;

    // Expose X::nested as X.nested
    enum_<X::nested>("nested")
        .value("red", red)
        .value("blue", blue)
        ;